Anarchism
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Anarchism has been variously defined by sources. Most often, the term describes the
political philosophy which considers the
state undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, and instead promotes a
stateless society, or
anarchy,
[1][2] while others have defined it as opposing
authority in the conduct of human relations.
[3][4][5][6][7] Anarchists oppose the idea that power and domination are necessary for society, and instead advocate more co-operative,
anti-hierarchical forms of social, political and economic organization.
[8]
[edit] Overview
There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive.
[9] Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism.
[2] Strains of anarchism have been divided into the categories of
social and
individualist anarchism or similar dual classifications.
[10][11] Anarchism is often considered to be a radical
left-wing ideology,
[12][13] and much of
anarchist economics and
anarchist legal philosophy reflect
anti-statist interpretations of
communism,
collectivism,
syndicalism or
participatory economics. However, anarchism has always included an
individualist strain supporting a
market economy and
private property, or morally unrestrained
egoism.
[14][15][16] Some individualist anarchists are also
socialists or
communists while some anarcho-communists are also individualists or egoists
[17][18] while some anarcho-communists are also individualists.
[19][20]
Anarchism as a
social movement
has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. The central tendency
of anarchism as a mass social movement has been represented by
anarcho-communism and
anarcho-syndicalism, with
individualist anarchism being primarily a literary phenomenon
[21] which nevertheless did have an impact on the bigger currents
[22] and individualists also participated in large anarchist organizations.
[23][24] Most anarchists
oppose all forms of aggression, supporting
self-defense or
non-violence (
anarcho-pacifism),
[25][26] while others have supported the use of some
coercive measures, including violent
revolution and
propaganda of the deed, on the path to an anarchist society.
[27]
[edit] Etymology and terminology
The term
anarchism derives from the
Greek ἄναρχος,
anarchos, meaning "without rulers",
[28][29] from the prefix ἀν- (
an-, "without") + ἀρχή (
archê, "sovereignty, realm, magistracy")
[30] + -ισμός (
-ismos, from the
suffix -ιζειν,
-izein "-izing"). There is some ambiguity with the use of the terms "
libertarianism" and "libertarian" in writings about anarchism. Since the 1890s from France,
[31] the term "libertarianism" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism
[32] and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States;
[33] its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.
[34] Accordingly, "
libertarian socialism" is sometimes used as a synonym for
socialist anarchism,
[35][36] to distinguish it from "individualist libertarianism" (individualist anarchism). On the other hand, some use "
libertarianism" to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as "
libertarian anarchism".
[37][38]
[edit] History
[edit] Origins
William Godwin,
"the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of
anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed
in his work".
[39]
The earliest
[40] anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of
Taoist philosopher
Laozi,
[39] and in later centuries by
Zhuangzi and Bao Jingyan.
[41] Zhuangzi, specifically, was called by economist
Ludwig von Mises as "the first anarchist in the history of human thought".
[40] According to
Austrian School economists
Murray Rothbard and Mises, Zhuangzi was the first to develop the idea of
spontaneous order, independently discovered by
Proudhon in the nineteenth century.
[40] Zhuangzi wrote,
"A petty thief is put in jail. A great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation,"[42]
while Bao Jingyan said that as soon as "the relationship between lord
and subject is established, hearts become daily filled with evil
designs, until the manacled criminals sullenly doing forced labour in
the mud and the dust are full of mutinous thoughts."
Diogenes of Sinope and the
Cynics, their contemporary
Zeno of Citium, the founder of
Stoicism, also introduced similar topics.
[39][43]
The term "anarchist" first entered the English language in 1642, during the
English Civil War, as a
term of abuse, used by
Royalists against their
Roundhead opponents.
[44] By the time of the
French Revolution some, such as the
Enragés, began to use the term positively,
[45] in opposition to
Jacobin centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as
oxymoronic.
[44] By the turn of the 19th century, the English word "anarchism" had lost its initial negative connotation.
[44]
Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the
Enlightenment, particularly
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.
[46] From this climate
William Godwin developed what many consider the first expression of
modern anarchist thought.
[47] Godwin was, according to
Peter Kropotkin,
"the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of
anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed
in his work",
[39] while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early
Edmund Burke.
[48] Benjamin Tucker instead credits
Josiah Warren, an American who promoted stateless and
voluntary communities where all goods and services were
private, with being "the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism."
[49] The first to describe himself as an anarchist was
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon,
[44] a French philosopher and politician, which led some to call him the founder of modern anarchist theory.
[50]
The anarcho-communist
Joseph Déjacque was the first person to describe himself as "
libertarian".
[51] Unlike
Proudhon,
he argued that, "it is not the product of his or her labor that the
worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs,
whatever may be their nature."
[52][53]
[edit] The First International
In Europe, harsh reaction followed the
revolutions of 1848,
during which ten countries had experienced brief or long-term social
upheaval as groups carried out nationalist uprisings. After most of
these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative
elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists,
liberals, and nationalists, to prevent further revolt.
[54] In 1864 the
International Workingmen's Association (sometimes called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of
Proudhon,
[55] Blanquists,
Philadelphes, English trade unionists,
socialists and
social democrats.
Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organization.
Karl Marx became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the
mutualists, opposed Marx's
state socialism, advocating political
abstentionism and small property holdings.
[56][57]
In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the
League of Peace and Freedom (LPF), Russian revolutionary
Mikhail Bakunin and his
collectivist anarchist associates joined the First International (which had decided not to get involved with the LPF).
[58] They allied themselves with the
federalist socialist sections of the International,
[59] who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property.
At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the
First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction.
Subsequently, the International became polarised into two camps, with
Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.
[60] Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as
centralist and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the
ruling class they had fought against.
[61][62]
In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the
Hague Congress, where Bakunin and
James Guillaume
were expelled from the International and its headquarters were
transferred to New York. In response, the federalist sections formed
their own International at the
St. Imier Congress, adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.
[63]
[edit] Organised labour
The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the
precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the
privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous
organization of labor."
[64] In 1886, the
Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the
eight-hour work day would become standard.
[65]
In response, unions across the
United States prepared a
general strike in support of the event.
[65] On 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when
strikebreakers attempted to cross the picket line, and two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd.
[66] The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.
[67] A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer.
[68] In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.
[69] Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.
[70]
Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of
the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased
officer. The men became international political celebrities among the
labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed
suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the
Haymarket affair,
and was a setback for the labour movement and the struggle for the
eight hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in
scope, to organise for the eight hour day was made.The event also had
the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the
Haymarket affair.
[71] Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following year the celebration of
International Workers' Day on
May Day had become firmly established as an international worker's holiday.
[65]
A sympathetic engraving by
Walter Crane of the executed "Anarchists of Chicago" after the
Haymarket affair. The Haymarket affair is generally considered the most significant event for the origin of international
May Day observances
In 1907, the
International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including
Errico Malatesta,
Pierre Monatte,
Luigi Fabbri,
Benoît Broutchoux,
Emma Goldman,
Rudolf Rocker, and
Christiaan Cornelissen. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement,
popular education issues, the
general strike or
antimilitarism. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and
syndicalism (or
trade unionism).
Malatesta and Monatte were in particular disagreement themselves on
this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and
would create the conditions of a
social revolution, while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.
[72] He thought that the trade-union movement was
reformist and even
conservative,
citing as essentially bourgeois and anti-worker the phenomenon of
professional union officials. Malatesta warned that the syndicalists
aims were in perpetuating syndicalism itself, whereas anarchists must
always have anarchy as their end and consequently refrain from
committing to any particular method of achieving it.
[73]
The
Spanish Workers Federation
in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist
trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most
successful was the
Confederación Nacional del Trabajo
(National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the
1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics,
attracting 1.58 million members at one point and playing a major role in
the
Spanish Civil War.
[74] The CNT was affiliated with the
International Workers Association,
a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with
delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe
and Latin America. In Latin America in particular "The anarchists
quickly became active in organizing craft and industrial workers
throughout South and Central America, and until the early 1920s most of
the trade unions in
Mexico,
Brazil,
Peru, Chile, and Argentina were anarcho-syndicalist in general outlook;
the prestige of the Spanish C.N.T. as a revolutionary organization was
undoubtedly to a great extent responsible for this situation. The
largest and most militant of these organizations was the
Federación Obrera Regional Argentina...it grew quickly to a membership of nearly a quarter of a million, which dwarfed the rival socialdemocratic unions."
[26]
[edit] Propaganda of the deed and illegalism
Italian-American anarchist
Luigi Galleani.
His followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings
and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks
on 'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people'
Some anarchists, such as
Johann Most,
advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against
counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for
itself, but also action as propaganda."
[75]
By the 1880s, the slogan "propaganda of the deed" had begun to be used
both within and outside of the anarchist movement to refer to individual
bombings,
regicides and
tyrannicides.
From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist
anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal ‘
expropriations’."
[76] Illegalism as a practice emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("
propaganda by the deed") and the anarchist burglars ("
individual reappropriation")
expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an
intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary ,
invitations to revolt.".
[77] France's
Bonnot Gang was the most famous group to embrace illegalism.
However, as soon as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from such individual acts.
Peter Kropotkin thus wrote that year in
Le Révolté that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite".
[78]
A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of
tactics in favor of collective revolutionary action, for example through
the
trade union movement. The
anarcho-syndicalist,
Fernand Pelloutier,
argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labor movement
on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual
dynamiter."
[79]
State repression (including the infamous 1894 French
lois scélérates) of the anarchist and
labor movements
following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have
contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although
reciprocally state repression, in the first place, may have played a
role in these isolated acts. The dismemberment of the French
socialist movement, into many groups and, following the suppression of the 1871
Paris Commune, the execution and exile of many
communards to
penal colonies, favored individualist political expression and acts.
[80]
Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of the anarchist movement. For example, U.S.
President McKinley's assassin
Leon Czolgosz claimed to have been influenced by anarchist and
feminist Emma Goldman. Bombings were associated in the media with anarchists because
international terrorism arose during this time period with the widespread distribution of dynamite. This image remains to this day.
Propaganda of the deed was abandoned by the vast majority of the anarchist movement after
World War I (1914–1918) and the
1917 October Revolution.
[edit] Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s
Anarchists participated alongside the
Bolsheviks in both
February and
October revolutions, and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution.
[81]
However, the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other
left-wing opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921
Kronstadt rebellion
which the new government repressed. Anarchists in central Russia were
either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious
Bolsheviks; the anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to the
Ukraine.
[82] There, in the
Free Territory, they fought in the
civil war against the
Whites (a grouping of monarchists and other opponents of the October Revolution) and then the Bolsheviks as part of the
Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine led by
Nestor Makhno, who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months.
Expelled American anarchists
Emma Goldman and
Alexander Berkman
were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the
suppression of the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both
wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticizing the amount of
control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them,
Bakunin's
predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of
the new "socialist" Marxist state would become a new elite had proved
all too true.
[61][83]
The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the
resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements
internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as
setting an example;
Communist parties
grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In
France and the United States, for example, members of the major
syndicalist movements of the
CGT and
IWW left the organizations and joined the
Communist International.
[84]
The
revolutionary wave of 1917–23 saw the active participation of anarchists in varying degrees of protagonism. In the German uprising known as the
Bavarian Soviet Republic the
anarchists Gustav Landauer,
Silvio Gesell and
Erich Mühsam had important leadership positions within the revolutionary
councilist structures.
[85][86] In the Italian events known as the
biennio rosso the anarcho-syndicalist trade union
Unione Sindacale Italiana "grew to 800,000 members and the influence of the Italian Anarchist Union (20,000 members plus
Umanita Nova, its daily paper) grew accordingly...Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying workplaces.
[87] In the
Mexican Revolution the
Mexican Liberal Party
was established and during the early 1910s it lead a series of military
offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and
districts in
Baja California with the leadership of anarcho-communist
Ricardo Flores Magón.
[88]
In Paris, the
Dielo Truda group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included
Nestor Makhno,
concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation
in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto,
called the
Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft),
[89] was supported.
Platformist groups active today include the
Workers Solidarity Movement in Ireland and the
North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists of North America.
Synthesis anarchism
emerged as an organizational alternative to platformism which tries to
join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of
anarchism without adjectives.
[90] In the 1920s this form found as its main proponents
Volin and
Sebastien Faure.
[90] It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global
International of Anarchist Federations.
[90]
[edit] Fight against fascism, the Spanish revolution and World War II
In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of
fascism in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists.
Italian anarchists played a key role in the
anti-fascist organisation
Arditi del Popolo, which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions, and achieved some success in their activism, such as repelling
Blackshirts in the anarchist stronghold of
Parma in August 1922.
[91]
The veteran Italian anarchist, Luigi Fabbri, was one of the first
critical theorists of fascism, describing it as "the preventive
counter-revolution."
[9]
In France, where the
far right leagues came close to insurrection in the
February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a
united front policy.
[92]
In Spain, the
CNT
initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and
abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But
in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the
popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class
responded with an attempted coup causing the
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).
[93] In response to the army rebellion, an
anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of
Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they
collectivised the land.
[94] But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the
Stalinists, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the
Soviet Union. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both
dissident Marxists and anarchists.
[95]
Anarchists in
France[96] and
Italy[97] were active in the
Resistance during World War II.
[edit] Post-war years
Anarchism sought to reorganize itself after the war. The
Mexican Anarchist Federation
was established on 1945 after the Anarchist Federation of the Center
united with the Anarchist Federation of the Federal District.
[98]
In the early 1940s Antifascist International Solidarity and Federation
of Anarchist Groups of Cuba merge into the large national organization
Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (Cuban Libertarian Association).
[99]
From 1944 to 1947, the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation
reemerges as part of a factory and workplace committee movement, but is
repressed by the new Communist regime.
[100] In 1945 in
France the
Fédération Anarchiste is established and the also
synthesist Federazione Anarchica Italiana is founded in
Italy. Korean anarchists form the League of Free Social Constructors in September 1945
[100] and in 1946 the
Japanese Anarchist Federation is founded.
[101] An International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe is held in Paris in May 1948.
[100] In 1956 the
Uruguayan Anarchist Federation is founded.
[102] In 1955 the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina renames itself as the
Argentine Libertarian Federation.
Anarchism continued to be influential in important literary and intellectual personalities of the time such as
Albert Camus,
Herbert Read,
Paul Goodman,
Dwight Macdonald,
Allen Ginsberg,
Julian Beck and the French
Surrealist group led by
André Breton which now openly embraced anarchism and collaborated in the
Fédération Anarchiste.
[103]
Anarcho-pacifism became influential in the
Anti-nuclear movement and
anti war movements of the time
[104][105] as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist member of
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament Alex Comfort or the similar activism of the American catholic anarcho-pacifist
Ammon Hennacy. Anarcho-pacifism became a "basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the
Cold War."
[106] The resurgence of anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in Robert Graham's
Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas,
Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939-1977).
[100]
[edit] Contemporary anarchism
A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s.
[107] Anarchism was influential in the
Counterculture of the 1960s[108][109][110] and anarchists actively participated in the
late sixties students and workers revolts.
[111] In 1968 in
Carrara, Italy the
International of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of
France, the
Italian and the
Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as the
Bulgarian federation in French exile.
[112][113]
In the United Kingdom in the 1970s this was associated with the
punk rock movement, as exemplified by bands such as
Crass and the
Sex Pistols.
[114] The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of
communes and
squatter movements like that of
Barcelona, Spain. In Denmark,
squatters occupied a disused military base and declared the
Freetown Christiania, an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen.
Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century,
[115]
a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged. Although
feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in
the form of
anarcha-feminism, they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s. The
American Civil Rights Movement and the movement against the
war in Vietnam
also contributed to the revival of North American anarchism. European
anarchism of the late 20th century drew much of its strength from the
labour movement, and both have incorporated
animal rights activism. Anarchist anthropologist
David Graeber and anarchist historian
Andrej Grubacic
have posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those
"who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits" of the 19th
century contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more
informed, among other elements, by
indigenous,
feminist,
ecological and
cultural-critical ideas", and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists.
[116]
Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and
anti-globalisation movements.
[117] Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the
World Trade Organization (WTO),
Group of Eight, and the
World Economic Forum.
Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property
destruction, and violent confrontations with police. These actions were
precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known as
black blocs; other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include
security culture,
affinity groups and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet.
[117] A significant event of this period was the confrontations at
WTO conference in Seattle in 1999.
[117]
International anarchist federations in existence include the
International of Anarchist Federations, the
International Workers' Association, and
International Libertarian Solidarity. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the
Confederación General del Trabajo (CGT) and the
CNT. CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for 2003.
[118] Other active syndicalist movements include in Sweden the
Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden and the
Swedish Anarcho-syndicalist Youth Federation; the CNT-AIT in France;
[119] the
Union Sindicale Italiana in Italy; in the US
Workers Solidarity Alliance and the UK
Solidarity Federation. The revolutionary industrial unionist
Industrial Workers of the World, claiming 2,000 paying members, and the
International Workers Association, an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active.
[edit] Anarchist schools of thought
Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions,
individualist anarchism and
social anarchism, which have some different origins, values and evolution.
[2][10][120] The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises
negative liberty, i.e. opposition to state or
social control over the individual, while those in the social wing emphasise
positive liberty
to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that
society ought to fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement".
[121]
In chronological and theoretical sense there are classical — those
created throughout the 19th century — and post-classical anarchist
schools — those created since the mid-20th century and after.
Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is
philosophical anarchism, which embodies the theoretical stance that the
state
lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution
to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism
[122][123] philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a
minimal state as unfortunate, and usually temporary, "necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have a
moral obligation to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy.
[124] One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was "
anarchism without adjectives", a call for
toleration first adopted by
Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the "bitter debates" of anarchist theory at the time.
[125]
In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-,
communist-, mutualist- and individualist-anarchism), it sought to
emphasise the
anti-authoritarian beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought.
[126]
[edit] Mutualism
Mutualism began in 18th century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States.
[127] Proudhon proposed
spontaneous order,
whereby organization emerges without central authority, a "positive
anarchy" where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only
what he wishes"
[128] and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."
[129]
Mutualist anarchism is concerned with
reciprocity,
free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and
currency reform. According to William Batchelder Greene, each worker in
the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his work;
services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent
in cost, without profit or discount."
[130]
Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically
situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.
[131] Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."
[132]
[edit] Individualist anarchism
Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the
individual and their
will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems.
[133][134]
Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a
group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict.
In 1793,
William Godwin, who has often
[135] been cited as the first anarchist, wrote
Political Justice, which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism.
[47][136] Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a
rationalist and
utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a
minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.
[47][137] Godwin advocated
individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.
[138][139]
An influential form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism,"
[140] or
egoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German
Max Stirner.
[141] Stirner's
The Ego and Its Own, published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.
[141] According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire,
[142] without regard for God, state, or morality.
[143] To Stirner, rights were
spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality".
[144] Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw
unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will,
[145] which Stirner proposed as a form of organization in place of the
state.
[146] Egoist anarchists claim that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.
[147]
"Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It
was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and
LGBT activist
John Henry Mackay.
Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American
anarchist,
[148] and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833,
The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published,.
[149] For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster "It is apparent...that
Proudhonian
Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as
1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist
Anarchism of
Josiah Warren and
Stephen Pearl Andrews...
William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form.".
[150] Henry David Thoreau
(1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist
thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American
author, poet, naturalist, tax resister,
development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading
transcendentalist. He is best known for his books
Walden, a reflection upon
simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay,
Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later
Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner´s egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his
eclectic influential publication
Liberty.
From these early influences individualist anarchism in different
countries attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists
and intellectuals,
[151] free love and
birth control advocates (see
Anarchism and issues related to love and sex),
[152][153] individualist
naturists nudists (see
anarcho-naturism)
[154] ,
[155][156] freethought and
anti-clearical activists
[157][158] as well as young anarchist outlaws in what came to be known as
illegalism and
individual reclamation[159][160](see
European individualist anarchism). These authors and activists included
Oscar Wilde,
Emile Armand,
Han Ryner,
Henri Zisly,
Renzo Novatore,
Miguel Gimenez Igualada,
Adolf Brand and
Lev Chernyi among others.
[edit] Social anarchism
Social anarchism calls for a system with public ownership of means of
production and democratic control of all organizations, without any
government authority or
coercion. It is the largest school of thought in anarchism.
[161] Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality, and emphasises cooperation and
mutual aid.
[162]
Collectivist anarchism, also referred to as "revolutionary socialism" or a form of such,
[163][164] is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with
Mikhail Bakunin and
Johann Most.
[165][166]
Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of
production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was
to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small
cohesive group through acts of violence, or "
propaganda by the deed", which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production.
[165]
However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution
of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather
than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in
anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by
anarchist communists as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system".
[167] Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with
Marxism but opposed the Marxist
dictatorship of the proletariat, despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.
[168] Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not
mutually exclusive;
although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour,
some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a
communist system of distribution according to need.
[169]
Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the
French revolution[52][170] but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the
First International.
[171] The theoretical work of
Peter Kropotkin and
Errico Malatesta took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and
insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections.
[172]Anarchist communism proposes that the freest form of
social organisation would be a society composed of
self-managing communes with collective use of the
means of production, organised
democratically, and related to other communes through
federation.
[173] While some anarchist communists favour
direct democracy, others feel that its
majoritarianism can impede individual liberty and favour
consensus democracy instead. In anarchist communism, as money would be abolished, individuals would not receive direct
compensation for labour (through sharing of
profits or payment) but would have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune.
[174][175] Anarchist communism does not always have a
communitarian philosophy. Some forms of anarchist communism such as
insurrectionary anarchism are
egoist and strongly influenced by radical
individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom.
[19][20][176][177] Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.
[178][179][180]
In the early 20th century,
anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism.
[181] With greater focus on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism,
syndicalism posits radical
trade unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically
self-managed by the workers. It is often combined with other branches of anarchism, and anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to
anarchist communist or
collectivist anarchist economic systems.
[182] An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was
Rudolf Rocker, whose 1938 pamphlet
Anarchosyndicalism outlined a view of the movement's origin, aims and importance to the future of labour.
[182][183]
[edit] Post-classical currents
Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources, and
syncretic,
combining disparate and contrary concepts to create new philosophical
approaches. Since the revival of anarchism in the United States in the
1960s,
[115] a number of new movements and schools have emerged.
[184] Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical anti-state
libertarianism and
individualist anarchism, drawing from
Austrian School economics, study of
law and economics and
public choice theory,
[185] while the burgeoning
feminist and
environmentalist movements also produced anarchist offshoots.
Anarcha-feminism developed as a synthesis of
radical feminism and anarchism that views
patriarchy
(male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of
compulsory government. It was inspired by the late 19th century writings
of early feminist anarchists such as
Lucy Parsons,
Emma Goldman,
Voltairine de Cleyre, and
Dora Marsden.
Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticise and advocate
the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and
gender roles.
Green anarchism (or eco-anarchism)
[186] is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on environmental issues,
[187] with an important precedent in
anarcho-naturism[155][188][189] and whose main contemporary currents are
anarcho-primitivism and
social ecology.
Anarcho-pacifism is a tendency which rejects the use of violence in the struggle for social change.
[25][26] It developed "mostly in the
Netherlands,
Britain, and the
United States, before and during the
Second World War".
[26] Christian anarchism is a
movement in
political theology that combines anarchism and
Christianity.
[190] Its main proponents included
Leo Tolstoy,
Dorothy Day,
Ammon Hennacy, and
Jacques Ellul.
Post-left anarchy is a tendency which seeks to distance itself from traditional
left-wing politics and to escape the confines of
ideology in general.
Post-anarchism is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and
poststructuralist thought drawing from diverse ideas including
post-modernism,
autonomist marxism,
post-left anarchy,
situationism and
postcolonialism.
Another recent form of anarchism critical of formal anarchist movements is
insurrectionary anarchism,
[191] which advocates informal organization and active resistance to the state; its proponents include
Wolfi Landstreicher and
Alfredo M. Bonanno.
[edit] Topics of interest in anarchist theory
Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought,
certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial
within anarchist theory.
[edit] Free love
An important current within anarchism is
free love.
[152] Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to
Josiah Warren
and to experimental communities, viewed sexual freedom as a clear,
direct expression of an individual's self-ownership. Free love
particularly stressed
women's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.
[152] The most important American free love journal was
Lucifer the Lightbearer (1883–1907) edited by
Moses Harman and
Lois Waisbrooker,
[192] but also there existed
Ezra Heywood and Angela Heywood's
The Word (1872–1890, 1892–1893).
[152] Free Society (1895-1897 as
The Firebrand; 1897-1904 as
Free Society) was a major anarchist newspaper in the
United States at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.
[193] The publication staunchly advocated
free love and
women's rights, and critiqued "
Comstockery" -- censorship of sexual information.Also
M. E. Lazarus was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.
[152]
In New York City's
Greenwich Village,
bohemian
feminists and socialists advocated self-realisation and pleasure for
women (and also men) in the here and now. They encouraged playing with
sexual roles and sexuality,
[194] and the openly bisexual radical
Edna St. Vincent Millay and the lesbian anarchist
Margaret Anderson were prominent among them. Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were frequented by
Emma Goldman,
among others. Magnus Hirschfeld noted in 1923 that Goldman "has
campaigned boldly and steadfastly for individual rights, and especially
for those deprived of their rights. Thus it came about that she was the
first and only woman, indeed the first and only American, to take up the
defense of homosexual love before the general public."
[195] In fact, before Goldman,
heterosexual
anarchist Robert Reitzel (1849–1898) spoke positively of homosexuality
from the beginning of the 1890s in his Detroit-based German language
journal
Der arme Teufel. In Argentina anarcha-feminist
Virginia Bolten published the newspaper called
La Voz de la Mujer (English:
The Woman's Voice), which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January 1896 and 1 January 1897, and was revived, briefly, in 1901.
[196]
In Europe the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was
Emile Armand.
[197] He proposed the concept of
la camaraderie amoureuse
to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter
between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of
polyamory.
[197] In Germany the
stirnerists Adolf Brand and
John Henry Mackay were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male
bisexuality and
homosexuality.
More recently, the British
anarcho-pacifist Alex Comfort gained notoriety during the
sexual revolution for writing the bestseller sex manual
The Joy of Sex. The issue of
free love has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho-
hedonist philosopher
Michel Onfray in such works as
Théorie du corps amoureux : pour une érotique solaire (2000) and
L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyréaniques (2002).
[edit] Libertarian education and freethought
For English anarchist
William Godwin education was "the main means by which change would be achieved."
[198] Godwin saw that the main goal of education should be the promotion of happiness
[198]
For Godwin education had to have "A respect for the child’s autonomy
which precluded any form of coercion", "A pedagogy that respected this
and sought to build on the child’s own motivation and initiatives" and
"A concern about the child’s capacity to resist an ideology transmitted
through the school."
[198] In his
Political Justice he criticizes state sponsored schooling "on account of its obvious alliance with national government".
[199] Early American anarchist
Josiah Warren advanced alternative education experiences in the libertarian communities he established.
[200] Max Stirner wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called
The False Principle of our Education.
In it Stirner names his educational principle "personalist," explaining
that self-understanding consists in hourly self-creation. Education for
him is to create "free men, sovereign characters," by which he means
"eternal characters...who are therefore eternal because they form
themselves each moment".
[201]
In the United States "freethought was a basically
anti-christian,
anti-clerical
movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and
spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of
contributors to
Liberty
(anarchist publication) were prominent figures in both freethought and
anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor
of
Freethought and, for a time,
The Truth Seeker. E.C. Walker was co-editor of the excellent free-thought / free love journal
Lucifer, the Light-Bearer".
[157] "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as
Lucifer, the Light-Bearer,
Freethought and
The Truth Seeker appeared in
Liberty...The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself".
[157]
In 1901, Catalan anarchist and
free-thinker Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia established "modern" or
progressive schools in
Barcelona in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church.
[202] The schools' stated goal was to "
educate the working class
in a rational, secular and non-coercive setting". Fiercely
anti-clerical, Ferrer believed in "freedom in education", education free
from the authority of church and state.
[203] Murray Bookchin
wrote: "This period [1890s] was the heyday of libertarian schools and
pedagogical projects in all areas of the country where Anarchists
exercised some degree of influence. Perhaps the best-known effort in
this field was Francisco Ferrer's Modern School (Escuela Moderna), a
project which exercised a considerable influence on Catalan education
and on experimental techniques of teaching generally."
[204] La Escuela Moderna, and Ferrer's ideas generally, formed the inspiration for a series of
Modern Schools in the
United States,
[202] Cuba,
South America and
London. The first of these was started in
New York City in 1911. It also inspired the Italian newspaper
Università popolare, founded in 1901. Russian
christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy established a school for peasant children on his estate.
[205] Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police.
[206] Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture.
[205]
He thought that "Education is the tendency of one man to make another
just like himself... Education is culture under restraint, culture is
free. [Education is] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and
when then instruction is exclusive, that is when only those subjects are
taught which the educator regards as necessary".
[205] For him "without compulsion, education was transformed into culture".
[205]
A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of
unschooling and the
free school in which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany led to
A. S. Neill founding what became
Summerhill School in 1921.
[207] Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice.
[208]
However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically
libertarian, they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not
advocating an overtly political
class struggle-approach.
[209]
In addition to organizing schools according to libertarian principles,
anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The
term
deschooling was popularized by
Ivan Illich,
who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for
self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society
instead.
[210]
[edit] Internal issues and debates
The use of
violence is a subject of much dispute in anarchism.
Anarchism is a
philosophy
which embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of
thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and
tactics is common. The compatibility of
capitalism,
[211] nationalism and
religion with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as
Marxism,
communism and
capitalism. Anarchists may be motivated by
humanism,
divine authority,
enlightened self-interest,
veganism or any number of alternative ethical doctrines.
Phenomena such as
civilization,
technology (e.g. within
anarcho-primitivism and
insurrectionary anarchism), and
the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.
On a tactical level, while
propaganda of the deed was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the
Nihilist movement), some contemporary anarchists espouse alternative
direct action methods such as
nonviolence,
counter-economics and
anti-state cryptography
to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist
society, some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by
local ones.
[212]
The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical
terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many
definitional concerns in anarchist theory.
[edit] Criticisms
Criticisms of anarchism include
moral criticisms and practical criticisms which claim that anarchism is unworkable in practice.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Malatesta, Errico. "Towards Anarchism"
. MAN! (Los Angeles: International Group of San Francisco). OCLC 3930443
. Agrell, Siri (2007-05-14). "Working for The Man"
. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2008-04-14. "Anarchism"
. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-29. "Anarchism". The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 14. 2005. "Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable.". The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy: Mclaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 59. ISBN 0-7546-6196-2. Johnston, R. (2000). The Dictionary of Human Geography. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. p. 24. ISBN 0-631-20561-6.
- ^ a b c Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.
- ^ "The IAF - IFA fights for : the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual.""Principles of The
International of Anarchist Federations"
- ^
"Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind
from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the
dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of
government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free
grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth;
an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the
earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to
individual desires, tastes, and inclinations." Emma Goldman. "What it Really Stands for Anarchy" in Anarchism and Other Essays.
- ^
Individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker defined anarchism as opposition
to authority as follows "They found that they must turn either to the
right or to the left, — follow either the path of Authority or the path
of Liberty. Marx went one way; Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were
born State Socialism and Anarchism...Authority, takes many shapes, but,
broadly speaking, her enemies divide themselves into three classes:
first, those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress,
opposing her openly, avowedly, sincerely, consistently, universally;
second, those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress, but
who accept her only so f ar as they think she will subserve their own
selfish interests, denying her and her blessings to the rest of the
world; third, those who distrust her as a means of progress, believing
in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon, violating,
and outraging her. These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met
in almost every sphere of thought and human activity. Good
representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the
Russian autocracy; of the second, in the Protestant Church and the
Manchester school of politics and political economy; of the third, in
the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of the socialism off Karl
Marg." Benjamin Tucker. Individual Liberty.
- ^ Ward, Colin (1966). "Anarchism as a Theory of Organization"
. Retrieved 1 March 2010.
- ^ Anarchist historian George Woodcock report of Mikhail Bakunin´s
anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state
forms of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of
them fight against it." (pg. 9)...Bakunin did not convert the League's
central committee to his full program, but he did persuade them to
accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Berne Congress of
September 1868, demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking
authority in both Church and State."
- ^ Brown, L. Susan (2002). "Anarchism as a Political Philosophy of Existential Individualism: Implications for Feminism". The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism and Anarchism. Black Rose Books Ltd. Publishing. p. 106.
- ^ Sylvan, Richard (1995). "Anarchism". In Goodwin, Robert E. and Pettit. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. Philip. Blackwell Publishing. p. 231.
- ^ a b Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.
- ^ Kropotkin, Peter (2002). Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings. Courier Dover Publications. p. 5. ISBN 0-486-41955-X.R.B. Fowler (1972). "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought". Western Political Quarterly (University of Utah) 25 (4): 738–752. doi:10.2307/446800
. JSTOR 446800
.
- ^ Brooks, Frank H. (1994). The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. xi. ISBN 1-56000-132-1.
"Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has
always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the
hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the
libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today"
- ^ Joseph
Kahn (2000). "Anarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of
World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement". The New York Times (5 August).Colin Moynihan (2007). "Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway". New York Times (16 April).
- ^ Stringham, Edward (2007). Stringham, Edward. ed. Anarchy and the Law. The Political Economy of Choice.
. Transaction Publishers. p. 720.
- ^ Narveson, Jan (2002). Respecting Persons in Theory and Practice. Chapter 11: Anarchist's Case
.
"To see this, of course, we must expound the moral outlook underlying
anarchism. To do this we must first make an important distinction
between two general options in anarchist theory [...] The two are what
we may call, respectively, the socialist versus the free-market, or
capitalist, versions."
- ^ Tormey, Simon, Anti-Capitalism, A Beginner's Guide, Oneworld Publications, 2004, pp. 118–119.
- ^ "This stance puts him squarely in the libertarian socialist tradition and, unsurprisingly, (Benjamin) Tucker referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be "Anarchistic socialism." "An Anarchist FAQby Various Authors
- ^
"Because revolution is the fire of our will and a need of our solitary
minds; it is an obligation of the libertarian aristocracy. To create new
ethical values. To create new aesthetic values. To communalize material
wealth. To individualize spiritual wealth."
Renzo Novatore. Toward the Creative Nothing
- ^ a b Post-left anarcho-communist Bob Black after analysing insurrectionary anarcho-communist Luigi Galleani's view on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final fulfillment of individualism....
The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on
a misunderstanding of both.... Subjectivity is also objective: the
individual really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of
'emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual'.... You may
as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a
'method of individualization'. It aims to combine the greatest
individual development with the greatest communal unity."Bob Black. Nightmares of Reason.
- ^ a b
"Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner. To them, not
merely religion, morality, family and State are spooks, but property
also is no more than a spook, in whose name the individual is enslaved -
and how enslaved!...Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and
Eigenheit of the individual. I am a Communist because I am an
Individualist. Fully as heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when
he puts the word take in place of demand - that leads to the
dissolution of property, to expropriation. Individualism and Communism
go hand in hand."
Max Baginski. "Stirner: The Ego and His Own" on Mother Earth. Vol. 2. No. 3 MAY, 1907
- ^ Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press, 2002, p. 191.
- ^ Catalan historian Xavier Diez reports that the Spanish individualist anarchist press was widely read by members of anarcho-communist groups and by members of the anarcho-syndicalist trade union CNT. There were also the cases of prominent individualist anarchists such as Federico Urales and Miguel Gimenez Igualada who were members of the CNT and J. Elizalde who was a founding member and first secretary of the Iberian Anarchist Federation. Xavier Diez. El anarquismo individualista en España: 1923-1938. ISBN 978-84-96044-87-6
- ^ Within the synthesist anarchist organization, the Fédération Anarchiste,
there existed an individualist anarchist tendency alongside
anarcho-communist and anarchosyndicalist currents. Individualist
anarchists participating inside the Fédération Anarchiste included Charles-Auguste Bontemps, Georges Vincey and André Arru. "Pensée et action des anarchistes en France : 1950-1970" by Cédric GUÉRIN
- ^ In Italy in 1945, during the Founding Congress of the Italian Anarchist Federation, there was a group of individualist anarchists led by Cesare Zaccaria who was an important anarchist of the time.Cesare Zaccaria (19 August 1897-October 1961) by Pier Carlo Masini and Paul Sharkey
- ^ a b ""Resiting the Nation State, the pacifist and anarchist tradition" by Geoffrey Ostergaard"
. Ppu.org.uk. 1945-08-06. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
- ^ a b c d George Woodcock. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements (1962)
- ^ Fowler, R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought." The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4. (December, 1972), pp. 743–744.
- ^ Anarchy
. Merriam-Webster online.
- ^ Liddell, Henry George, & Scott, Robert, "A Greek-English Lexicon"[1]
.
- ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon
. ISBN 0-19-910205-8.
- ^ Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism. Freedom Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-900384-89-1.
- ^
"At the end of the century in France, Sebastien Faure took up a word
originated in 1858 by one Joseph Dejacque to make it the title of a
journal, Le Libertaire. Today the terms “anarchist” and “libertarian”
have become interchangeable."
Daniel Guérin. Anarchism: From Theory to Practice
- ^ Russell, Dean. Who is a Libertarian?
, Foundation for Economic Education, "Ideas on Liberty," May, 1955.
- ^
- Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62
- Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4
- MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with Dwight Macdonald. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82
- Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv
- Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126
- Woodcock, George.
Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview
Press, 2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10)
- Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183.
- Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, page 9.
- ^ Perlin, Terry M. (1979). Contemporary Anarchism. Transaction Publishers. p. 40. ISBN 0-87855-097-6.
- ^ Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739.
- ^ Morris, Christopher. 1992. An Essay on the Modern State.
Cambridge University Press. p. 61. (Using "libertarian anarchism"
synonymously with "individualist anarchism" when referring to
individualist anarchism that supports a market society).
- ^ Burton, Daniel C.. Libertarian anarchism
. Libertarian Alliance.
- ^ a b c d Peter Kropotkin, "Anarchism"
, Encyclopædia Britannica 1910.
- ^ a b c Taoism in Ancient China
- ^ [2]
- ^ Murray Rothbard. "Concepts of the role of intellectuals in social change toward laissez faire"
(PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-28.
- ^ Cynics
entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Julie Piering
- ^ a b c d e "Anarchism"
, BBC Radio 4 program, In Our Time, Thursday 7 December 2006. Hosted by Melvyn Bragg of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at University of Westminster, Ruth Kinna, Senior Lecturer in Politics at Loughborough University, and Peter Marshall, philosopher and historian.
- ^ Sheehan, Sean. Anarchism, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85.
- ^ "Anarchism", Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 (UK version).
- ^ a b c William Godwin
entry by Mark Philip in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006-05-20
- ^ Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to Edmund Burke's A Vindication of Natural Society. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's Vindication of Natural Society;
a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions
are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of
eloquence..." – footnote, Ch. 2 Political Justice by William Godwin.
- ^ Liberty XIV (December, 1900:1).
- ^ Daniel Guerin, Anarchism: From Theory to Practice (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).
- ^ Joseph Déjacque, De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque
(in French)
- ^ Cite error: Invalid
<ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Graham-2005; see Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text
- ^ "l'Echange", article in Le Libertaire no 6, September 21, 1858, New York. [3]
- ^ Breunig, Charles (1977). The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789–1850. New York, N.Y: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-09143-0.
- ^ Blin, Arnaud (2007). The History of Terrorism. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 116. ISBN 0-520-24709-4.
- ^ Dodson, Edward (2002). The Discovery of First Principles: Volume 2. Authorhouse. p. 312. ISBN 0-595-24912-4.
- ^ Thomas, Paul (1985). Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 187. ISBN 0-7102-0685-2.
- ^ Thomas, Paul (1980). Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. p. 304. ISBN 0-7102-0685-2.
- ^ Bak, Jǹos (1991). Liberty and Socialism. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 236. ISBN 0-8476-7680-3.
- ^ Engel, Barbara (2000). Mothers and Daughters. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. p. 140. ISBN 0-8101-1740-1.
- ^ a b "On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx
" in Bakunin on Anarchy, translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971.
- ^ Bakunin, Mikhail (1991) [1873]. Statism and Anarchy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36973-8.
- ^ Graham, Robert 'Anarchism
(Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) ISBN 1-55164-251-4.
- ^ Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Vol. 1, p. 100 [4]
- ^ a b c Foner, Philip Sheldon (1986). May day: a short history of the international workers' holiday, 1886–1986. New York: International Publishers. p. 56. ISBN 0-7178-0624-3.
- ^ Avrich, Paul (1984). The Haymarket Tragedy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 190. ISBN 0-691-00600-8.
- ^ Avrich. The Haymarket Tragedy. p. 193. ISBN 0-691-04711-1.
- ^ "Patrolman Mathias J. Degan"
. The Officer Down Memorial Page, Inc. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
- ^ Chicago Tribune, 27 June 1886, quoted in Avrich. The Haymarket Tragedy. p. 209. ISBN 0-691-04711-1.
- ^ "Act II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here"
. The Dramas of Haymarket. Chicago Historical Society. 2000. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
- ^ Foner. May Day. p. 42. ISBN 0-7178-0624-3.
- ^ Extract of Malatesta's declaration
(French)
- ^ Skirda, Alexandre (2002). Facing the enemy: a history of anarchist organization from Proudhon to May 1968. A. K. Press. p. 89. ISBN 1-902593-19-7.
- ^ Beevor, Antony (2006). The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-297-84832-5.
- ^ ""Action as Propaganda" by Johann Most, July 25, 1885"
. Dwardmac.pitzer.edu. 2003-04-21. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
- ^ "Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam
- ^ "The "illegalists" by Doug Imrie. From "Anarchy: a Journal Of Desire Armed" , Fall-Winter, 1994-95
- ^ quoted in Billington, James H. 1998. Fire in the minds of men: origins of the revolutionary faith New Jersey: Transaction Books, p 417.
- ^ "Table Of Contents"
. Blackrosebooks.net. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
- ^ Historian Benedict Anderson thus writes:
"In March 1871 the Commune took power in the abandoned city and held it for two months. Then Versailles
seized the moment to attack and, in one horrifying week, executed
roughly 20,000 Communards or suspected sympathizers, a number higher
than those killed in the recent war or during Robespierre's 'Terror'
of 1793–1794. More than 7,500 were jailed or deported to places like
New Caledonia. Thousands of others fled to Belgium, England, Italy,
Spain and the United States. In 1872, stringent laws were passed that
ruled out all possibilities of organizing on the left. Not till 1880 was
there a general amnesty for exiled and imprisoned Communards.
Meanwhile, the Third Republic found itself strong enough to renew and
reinforce Louis Napoleon's
imperialist expansion– in Indochina, Africa, and Oceania. Many of
France's leading intellectuals and artists had participated in the
Commune (Courbet was its quasi-minister of culture, Rimbaud and Pissarro
were active propagandists) or were sympathetic to it. The ferocious
repression of 1871 and thereafter, was probably the key factor in
alienating these milieux from the Third Republic and stirring their
sympathy for its victims at home and abroad." (in Benedict Anderson (July -August 2004). "In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel"
. New Left Review.)
According to some analysts, in post-war Germany, the prohibition of the Communist Party
(KDP) and thus of institutional far-left political organization may
also, in the same manner, have played a role in the creation of the Red Army Faction.
- ^ Dirlik, Arif (1991). Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07297-9.
- ^ Avrich, Paul (2006). The Russian Anarchists. Stirling: AK Press. p. 204. ISBN 1-904859-48-8.
- ^ Goldman, Emma (2003). "Preface". My Disillusionment in Russia. New York: Dover Publications. p. xx. ISBN 0-486-43270-X.
"My critic further charged me with believing that "had the Russians
made the Revolution à la Bakunin instead of à la Marx" the result would
have been different and more satisfactory. I plead guilty to the charge.
In truth, I not only believe so; I am certain of it."
- ^ Nomad, Max (1966). "The Anarchist Tradition". In Drachkovitch, Milorad M.. Revolutionary Internationals 1864 1943. Stanford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-8047-0293-4.
- ^
"The Munich Soviet (or “Council Republic”) of 1919 exhibited certain
features of the TAZ, even though — like most revolutions — its stated
goals were not exactly “temporary.” Gustav Landauer's participation as
Minister of Culture along with Silvio Gesell as Minister of Economics
and other anti-authoritarian and extreme libertarian socialists such as
the poet/playwrights Erich Mªhsam and Ernst Toller, and Ret Marut (the
novelist B. Traven), gave the Soviet a distinct anarchist flavor." Hakim Bey. "T.A.Z.: The Temporary Autonomous Zone, Ontological Anarchy, Poetic Terrorism"
- ^ "Die bayerische Revolution 1918/19. Die erste Räterepublik der Literaten"
- ^ "1918-1921: The Italian factory occupations - Biennio Rosso"
- ^ "The Magonista Revolt in Baja California Capitalist Conspiracy or Rebelion de los Pobres?" by Lawrence D. Taylor
- ^ Dielo Trouda (2006) [1926]. Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)
. Italy: FdCA. Retrieved 2006-10-24.
- ^ a b c — Starhawk. ""J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?" in
An Anarchist FAQ". Infoshop.org. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
- ^ Holbrow, Marnie, "Daring but Divided"
(Socialist Review November 2002).
- ^ Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution." Le Libertaire. August 1936.
- ^ Beevor, Antony (2006). The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-297-84832-5.
- ^ Bolloten, Burnett (1984-11-15). The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution. University of North Carolina Press. p. 1107. ISBN 978-0-8078-1906-7.
- ^ Birchall, Ian (2004). Sartre Against Stalinism. Berghahn Books. p. 29. ISBN 1-57181-542-2.
- ^ "Anarchist Activity in France during World War Two"
- ^ "1943-1945: Anarchist partisans in the Italian Resistance"
- ^ "Regeneración y la Federación Anarquista Mexicana (1952-1960)" by Ulises Ortega Aguilar
- ^
"The surviving sectors of the revolutionary anarchist movement of the
1920-1940 period, now working in the SIA and the FGAC, reinforced by
those Cuban militants and Spanish anarchists fleeing now-fascist Spain,
agreed at the beginning of the decade to hold an assembly with the
purpose of regrouping the libertarian forces inside a single
organization. The guarantees of the 1940 Constitution permitted them to
legally create an organization of this type, and it was thus that they
agreed to dissolve the two principal Cuban anarchist organizations, the
SIA and FGAC, and create a new, unified group, the Asociación Libertaria
de Cuba (ALC), a sizable organization with a membership in the
thousands."Cuban Anarchism: The History of A Movement by Frank Fernandez
- ^ a b c d [5]
- ^ THE ANARCHIST MOVEMENT IN JAPAN Anarchist Communist Editions § ACE Pamphlet No. 8
- ^ "50 años de la Federación Anarquista Uruguaya"
- ^
"It was in the black mirror of anarchism that surrealism first
recognised itself," wrote André Breton in "The Black Mirror of
Anarchism," Selection 23 in Robert Graham, ed., Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939-1977)[6]
.
Breton had returned to France in 1947 and in April of that year Andre
Julien welcomed his return in the pages of Le Libertaire the weekly
paper of the Federation Anarchiste""1919-1950: The politics of Surrealism" by Nick Heath
- ^
"In the forties and fifties, anarchism, in fact if not in name, began
to reappear, often in alliance with pacifism, as the basis for a
critique of militarism on both sides of the Cold War.[7]
The anarchist/pacifist wing of the peace movement was small in
comparison with the wing of the movement that emphasized electoral work,
but made an important contribution to the movement as a whole. Where
the more conventional wing of the peace movement rejected militarism and
war under all but the most dire circumstances, the anarchist/pacifist
wing rejected these on principle.""Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein
- ^
"In the 1950s and 1960s anarcho-pacifism began to gel, tough-minded
anarchists adding to the mixture their critique of the state, and
tender-minded pacifists their critique of violence. Its first practical
manifestation was at the level of method: nonviolent direct action,
principled and pragmatic, was used widely in both the Civil Rights
movement in the USA and the campaign against nuclear weapons in Britain
and elsewhere."Geoffrey Ostergaard. Resisting the Nation State. The pacifist and anarchist tradition
- ^ "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein
- ^ Thomas 1985, p. 4
- ^ "These
groups had their roots in the anarchist resurgence of the nineteen
sixties. Young militants finding their way to anarchism, often from the
anti-bomb and anti-Vietnam war movements, linked up with an earlier
generation of activists, largely outside the ossified structures of
‘official’ anarchism. Anarchist tactics embraced demonstrations, direct
action such as industrial militancy and squatting, protest bombings like
those of the First of May Group and Angry Brigade – and a spree of
publishing activity.""Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract
and their support network" by John Patten
- ^
"Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their
founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism,
anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important
models and inspirations for the 60s. As Farrell puts it, "Catholic
Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began,
and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade.""The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell
- ^
"While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the
sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist
principles bcame so widespread that a political science profes- sor
denounced what she saw as "The Tyranny of Structurelessness." Several
groups have called themselves "Amazon Anarchists." After the Stonewall Rebellion, the New York Gay Liberation Front based their organization in part on a reading of Murray Bookchin's anarchist writings." "Anarchism" by Charley Shively in Encyclopedia of Homosexuality
. pg. 52
- ^
"Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to
anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the
thirties...But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that
were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with
hostility to authority in general and state power in particular...By the
late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural
radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of
power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical
ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical
feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather
Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war
movement." "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein
- ^ London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968
International Institute of Social History, Accessed 19 January 2010
- ^ Short history of the IAF-IFA
A-infos news project, Accessed 19 January 2010
- ^ McLaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 10. ISBN 0-7546-6196-2.
- ^ a b Williams, Leonard (September 2007). "Anarchism Revived". New Political Science 29 (3): 297–312. doi:10.1080/07393140701510160
.
- ^ David Graeber and Andrej Grubacic, "Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century
", ZNet. Retrieved 2007-12-13. or Graeber,
David and Grubacic, Andrej(2004)Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary
Movement Of The Twenty-first Century Retrieved 2010-07-26
- ^ a b c Rupert, Mark (2006). Globalization and International Political Economy. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 66. ISBN 0-7425-2943-6.
- ^ Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004).
- ^ http://www.cnt-ait-fr.org/CNT-AIT/ACCUEIL.html
Website of the Confédération Nationale du Travail - Association
Internationale des Travailleurs
- ^ Anarchism
, The New Encyclopedia of Social Reform
(1908).
- ^ Harrison, Kevin and Boyd, Tony. Understanding Political Ideas and Movements. Manchester University Press 2003, p. 251.
- ^
Outhwaite, William & Tourain, Alain (Eds.). (2003). Anarchism. The
Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2nd Edition, p. 12).
Blackwell Publishing.
- ^ Wayne Gabardi, review
of Anarchism by David Miller, published in American Political Science Review Vol. 80, No. 1. (Mar., 1986), pp. 300-302.
- ^ Klosko, George. Political Obligations. Oxford University Press 2005. p. 4.
- ^ Avrich, Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6.
- ^ Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898" [p. 135].
- ^ "A member of a community," The Mutualist; this 1826 series criticised Robert Owen's
proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly
from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; Wilbur, Shawn, 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?".
- ^ Proudhon, Solution to the Social Problem, ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p. 45.
- ^ Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph (1979). The Principle of Federation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-5458-7. "The notion of anarchy
in politics is just as rational and positive as any other. It means
that once industrial functions have taken over from political functions,
then business transactions alone produce the social order."
- ^ "Communism versus Mutualism", Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and Financial Fragments. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) William Batchelder Greene:
"Under the mutual system, each individual will receive the just and
exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable
for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and so much
as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has
earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the
community of which he is an individual member."
- ^ Avrich, Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0-691-04494-5, p.6
Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 11.
- ^ Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. What Is Property? Princeton, MA: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1876. p. 281.
- ^
"What do I mean by individualism? I mean by individualism the moral
doctrine which, relying on no dogma, no tradition, no external
determination, appeals only to the individual conscience."Mini-Manual of Individualism by Han Ryner
- ^
"I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual, as a
condition of his sovereignty. To say that the sovereignty of the
individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying
that it is conditioned by itself.""Anarchism and the State" in Individual Liberty
- ^
Everhart, Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of
Education and the State in American Society. Pacific Institute for
Public Policy Research, 1982. p. 115.
- ^ Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116.
- ^ Godwin, William (1796) [1793]. Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners. G.G. and J. Robinson. OCLC 2340417
.
- ^ Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Retrieved 7 December 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online
.
- ^
Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction
to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119.
- ^ Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, p. 99.
- ^ a b Max Stirner
entry by David Leopold in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006-08-04
- ^ The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176.
- ^ Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11.
- ^
"What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property
everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my
actual property as fas as I entitle, that is, empower myself to take..." In Ossar, Michael. 1980. Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller. SUNY Press. p. 27.
- ^ Nyberg, Svein Olav. "max stirner"
. Non Serviam. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
- ^ Thomas, Paul (1985). Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge/Kegan Paul. p. 142. ISBN 0-7102-0685-2.
- ^ Carlson, Andrew (1972). "Philosophical Egoism: German Antecedents"
. Anarchism in Germany. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-0484-0. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
- ^ Palmer, Brian (2010-12-29) What do anarchists want from us?
, Slate.com
- ^ William Bailie, [8]
Josiah Warren: The First American Anarchist — A Sociological Study, Boston: Small, Maynard & Co., 1906, p. 20
- ^ Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American Individualism by Eunice Minette Schuster
- ^ "2. Individualist Anarchism and Reaction" in Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism - An Unbridgeable Chasm
- ^ a b c d e The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy
- ^ "La
insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la
Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923-1938)" by Xavier Díez
- ^
"Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A...Una escisión de la FAI producida
en el IX Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se pr odujo cuando un sector de
anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretación que ellos
juzgan disciplinaria del pacto asociativo" clásico, y crean los GIA
(Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica) . Esta pequeña federación de grupos,
hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco-individualistas de
orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera defiende la autonomía
personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervención en los
procesos del sistema, como sería por ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su
portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisión de los GIA
prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto había de
comenzar en el seno del movimiento""El movimiento libertario en Italia" by Bicicleta. REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977
- ^ a b
"Proliferarán así diversos grupos que practicarán el excursionismo, el
naturismo, el nudismo, la emancipación sexual o el esperantismo,
alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra
al anarquismo. Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras
impuestas desde la legislación especial de la Dictadura potenciarán
indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluirá
el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de prácticas y
tendencias. Uno de los grupos más destacados, que será el impulsor de la
revista individualista Ética será el Ateneo Naturista Ecléctico, con
sede en Barcelona, con sus diferentes secciones la más destacada de las
cuales será el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida.""La
insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la
Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923-1938)" by Xavier Díez
- ^
"Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien
compris, et intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est
vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus
que nous assistons, en ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme
(conservateur par essence).""Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak
- ^ a b c
Wendy McElroy. "The culture of individualist anarchist in Late-nineteenth century America"
- ^ Xavier Diez. El anarquismo individualista en España (1923-1939) Virus Editorial. 2007. pg. 143
- ^ The "Illegalists"
, by Doug Imrie (published by Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed)
- ^ Parry, Richard. The Bonnot Gang. Rebel Press, 1987. p. 15
- ^
"This does not mean that the majority thread within the anarchist
movement is uncritical of individualist anarchism. Far from it! Social
anarchists have argued that this influence of non-anarchist ideas means
that while its "criticism of the State is very searching, and [its]
defence of the rights of the individual very powerful," like Spencer it
"opens . . . the way for reconstituting under the heading of 'defence'
all the functions of the State." Section G – Is individualist anarchism capitalistic?
An Anarchist FAQ
- ^ Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.
- ^ Morris, Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 76.
- ^ Rae, John. Contemporary Socialism. C. Scribner's sons, 1901, Original from Harvard University. p. 261.
- ^ a b Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54.
- ^ Avrich, Paul. 2006. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. AK Press. p. 5.
- ^ Kropotkin, Peter (2007). "13". The Conquest of Bread. Edinburgh: AK Press. ISBN 978-1-904859-10-9.
- ^ Bakunin, Mikhail (1990). Statism and Anarchy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36182-6.
"They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship – their
dictatorship, of course – can create the will of the people, while our
answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of
self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people
tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a
universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of
the toiling masses from the bottom up."
- ^ Guillaume, James (1876). "Ideas on Social Organization"
.
- ^ "Chapter 41: The “Anarchists”" in The Great French Revolution 1789-1793 by Peter Kropotkin
- ^ Nunzio Pernicone, "Italian Anarchism 1864 - 1892", pp. 111-113, AK Press 2009.
- ^ "Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam
- ^ Puente, Isaac."Libertarian Communism"
. The Cienfuegos Press Anarchist Review. Issue 6 Orkney 1982.
- ^ Miller. Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, Blackwell Publishing (1991) ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 12.
- ^ Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej. Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century.
- ^ Christopher Gray, Leaving the Twentieth Century, p. 88.
- ^ "Towards the creative Nothing" by
Renzo Novatore
- ^
"Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of
individual liberty — provided that the idea that begets the community be
Liberty, Anarchy...Communism guarantees economic freedom better than
any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even
luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work." "Communism and Anarchy" by
Peter Kropotkin
- ^
This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social
solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in
which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony.Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists by Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause)
- ^
"I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism,
individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human
exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and
feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and
struggle.""MY PERSPECTIVES" by Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12
- ^ Berry, David, A History of the French Anarchist Movement, 1917–1945 p. 134.
- ^ a b Iain Mckay, ed (2008). "Are there different types of social anarchism?"
. An Anarchist FAQ. Stirling: AK Press. ISBN 1-902593-90-1. OCLC 182529204
.
- ^ Anarchosyndicalism
by Rudolf Rocker. Retrieved 7 September 2006.
- ^ Perlin, Terry M. Contemporary Anarchism
. Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ 1979
- ^ Edward Stringham, Anarchy, State, and Public Choice
, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005.
- ^ David Pepper (1996). Modern Environmentalism
p. 44. Routledge.
- ^ Ian Adams (2001). Political Ideology Today
p. 130. Manchester University Press.
- ^ "Anarchism and the different Naturist views have always been related.""Anarchism
- Nudism, Naturism" by Carlos Ortega at Asociacion para el Desarrollo
Naturista de la Comunidad de Madrid. Published on Revista ADN. Winter 2003
- ^ EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PENÍNSULA IBÉRICA (1890-1939) by Jose Maria Rosello
- ^ Christoyannopoulos, Alexandre (2010). Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel. Exeter: Imprint Academic. pp. 2–4. "Locating Christian anarchism...In political theology"
- ^ ""Anarchism, insurrections and insurrectionalism" by Joe Black"
. Ainfos.ca. 2006-07-19. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
- ^ Joanne E. Passet, "Power through Print: Lois Waisbrooker and Grassroots Feminism," in: Women in Print: Essays on the Print Culture of American Women from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, James Philip Danky and Wayne A. Wiegand, eds., Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006; pp. 229–250.
- ^ "Free Society was the principal English-language forum for anarchist ideas in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century." Emma Goldman: Making Speech Free, 1902-1909, p.551.
- ^ Sochen, June. 1972. The New Woman: Feminism in Greenwich Village 1910–1920. New York: Quadrangle.
- ^ Katz, Jonathan Ned. Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A. (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976)
- ^ Molyneux, Maxine (2001). Women's movements in international perspective: Latin America and beyond
. Palgrave MacMillan. p. 24. ISBN 9780333786772.
- ^ a b "E. Armand and "la camaraderie amoureuse" – Revolutionary sexualism and the struggle against jealousy"
(PDF). Retrieved 2010-09-20.
- ^ a b c "william godwin and informal education" by infed
- ^
Political Justice by William Godwin
- ^ "Where utopian projectors starting with Plato
entertained the idea of creating an ideal species through eugenics and
education and a set of universally valid institutions inculcating shared
identities, Warren wanted to dissolve such identities in a solution of
individual self-sovereignty. His educational experiments, for example,
possibly under the influence of the swiss educational theorist Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (via Owen),
emphasized - as we would expect - the nurturing of the independence and
the conscience of individual children, not the inculcation of
pre-conceived values."Introduction of The Practical Anarchist: Writings of Josiah Warren" by Crispin Sartwell
- ^ ""The False Principle of our Education" by Max Stirner"
. Tmh.floonet.net. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
- ^ a b Geoffrey C. Fidler (Spring/Summer 1985). "The Escuela Moderna Movement of Francisco Ferrer: "Por la Verdad y la Justicia"". History of Education Quarterly (History of Education Society) 25 (1/2): 103–132. doi:10.2307/368893
. JSTOR 368893
.
- ^ "Francisco Ferrer's Modern School"
. Flag.blackened.net. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
- ^ Chapter 7, Anarchosyndicalism, The New Ferment. In Murray Bookchin, The Spanish anarchists: the heroic years, 1868–1936. AK Press, 1998, p.115. ISBN 1-873176-04-X
- ^ a b c d "The Emergence of Compulsory Schooling and Anarchist Resistance" by Matt Hern
- ^ Wilson, A.N. (2001). Tolstoy
. Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc.. p. xxi. ISBN 0393321223.
- ^ Purkis, Jon (2004). Changing Anarchism. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8.
- ^ Andrew Vincent (2010) Modern Political Ideologies, 3rd edition, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell p.129
- ^ Suissa, Judith (September/October 2005). "Anarchy in the classroom"
. The New Humanist 120 (5).
- ^ Illich, Ivan (1971). Deschooling Society. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-012139-4.
- ^ "Anarchism." The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 31.
- ^ Ted Honderich, Carmen García Trevijano, Oxford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
.
[edit] Further reading
- Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas. Robert Graham, editor.
- Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939) Black Rose Books, Montréal and London 2005. ISBN 1-55164-250-6.
- Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (1939–2006) Black Rose Books, Montréal 2007. ISBN 978-1-55164-311-3.
- Anarchism, George Woodcock (Penguin Books, 1962). OCLC 221147531
.
- Anarchy: A Graphic Guide, Clifford Harper (Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork.
- The Anarchist Reader, George Woodcock (ed.) (Fontana/Collins 1977; ISBN 0-00-634011-3): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including Proudhon, Kropotkin, Bakunin, Malatesta, Bookchin, Goldman, and many others.
- Anarchism: From Theory to Practice
by Daniel Guerin. Monthly Review Press. 1970. ISBN 0-85345-175-3
- Anarchy through the times by Max Nettlau. Gordon Press. 1979. ISBN 0-8490-1397-6
- Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism by Peter Marshall. PM Press. 2010. ISBN 1-60486-064-2
- People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy (2nd ed.) by Harold Barclay, Left Bank Books, 1990 ISBN 1-871082-16-1
- The Political Theory of Anarchism by April Carter. Harper & Row. 1971. ISBN 978-0-0613-6050-3
- Sartwell, Crispin (2008). Against the state: an introduction to anarchist political theory
. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791474471.
[edit] External links
